Traditional Criticism

In traditional criticism, you examine how the author’s life, his or her biographical information, is reflected in the work.  You research all facets of his background and find traces of his or her experiences shown in the text.    Question how the work shows pieces of the author’s past, his/her interests, biases, etc.

Sociological Criticism

This type of criticism can include discussions of society, of social relationships, and of historical events which might affect society during the time period of the work.

In Sociological criticism, you should examine all types of politics--for example Marxism, feminism, totalitarianism, primitivism--not just conservatism and liberalism. Concentrate on how society in the various political "isms" distinguish between members of various races, social classes, sexes, or cultures. The sociological critic looks for themes of oppression and liberation; such themes may concern an individual, a family, a small group, or an entire society.

Below is a list of a few questions--but certainly not all--that you might want to consider as sociological critics:

--What world events play a role in the plot.  In other words, what was occurring during this time period, in general society or in the political realm, that is developed in the work?

--What does it say about North American society? What do individual characters say? How does the opinion of the individuals differ from that of the author?

--What does it say about primitive societies?

--Who is actually "civilized" in the book? Who are the most primitive?

--What different society groups are in the book? What is the relationship between each of them? How is it reflected? Why do they behave towards each other the way they do? How do the different groups affect the political "ism" in society?

--How does this work comment on war, hunger, sex, religion, education, ethics?

--What view of the family is given? Do the relationships of the family members change in the work?

--How different is the society of the novel from our society? How similar is it?

Marxism

•The 'Frankfurt School' and Walter Benjamin:(Horkheimer, Adorno)...Literature the only place where totalitarian society can be resisted...Detachment gives significance and power...Popular art an expression of the economic system which shapes it.  Modern technology has profoundly altered the status of art...No longer the preserve of a special elite...New media destroy the "religious" feeling toward art...Art becomes designed for "reproducibility"...Art more open to politics

Mythological/Archetypal Criticism

Mythological criticism deals with instinctual, deep chords in human nature that are touched by certain types of events, character situations, conflicts, etc. Based on communal beliefs, mythology is affiliated with religion, anthropology, and cultural history.   

An archetype is a motif (theme) or image which is found in myths of peoples widely separated by time or place. Because of this, it has universal significance. Situations, conflicts, and characters can be archetypal.

For Mythological/Archetypal Criticism you might want to ask yourselves--among other questions--the following:

--Are there any strong Communal Beliefs:

    1. Belief in Supreme Being(s) creator, judge, prime mover, religion, fate

    2. Belief in power of nature--Mother Nature, natural disasters, magical places (holy wells, sacred rocks, etc.)

--What images are used

    1. Water: birth, death, resurrection; life cycle; eternity

    2. Colors

          red: blood; sacrifice; violence

          green: hope, fertility; death, decay

          black: the unknown; death; evil

          blue: virginal, Mary

    3. Numbers

          three: spiritual unity; male

          four: life cycle; four seasons; four elements; female

          seven: powerful because it unites three and four; perfect

    4. Garden: paradise; innocence; unspoiled beauty

    5. Tree: immorality; inexhaustible life

--What Motifs are used:

    1. Creation

    2. Immortality

    3. Wise Old Man (Woman) [savior, guru]: appears when hero is desperate

    4. Woman: birth, protection; witch, whore, danger

    5. Hero archetypes

            --the quest: hero undertakes journey and performs impossible task to save    

                his/her people

            --Initiation: hero undergoes ordeals to achieve maturity. phases: separation,   

                transformation, and return

            --Sacrificial scapegoat: the hero must die to save his/her people

            --Victim

--What archetypal situations, conflicts, and characters do you see?

Formalist Criticism

--This type of criticism concerns itself with the parts of a text and how the parts fit together to make a whole. Because of this, it does not bring in any information outside of the text: biography of the author, historical or literary allusions, mythological patterns, or the psychoanalytical traits of the characters (except those traits specifically described in the text.)

--The formalist critic examines each part of the text: the 46 chapters, the 15 parts, the characters, the settings, the tone, the point of view, the diction, the fictional world in which the characters live. After analyzing each part of the text, the critic then describes how they work together.

--When exploring a work using Formalist Criticism, you will look at the parts, and then you will discuss the craft of putting these parts together. In preparing your presentation, you might want to ask yourself--among many other questions the following:

•Do you see each part (or chapter) as "a novel in miniature)?  Does each chapter (part) describe only one major event?

•How much time is devoted to each setting? Is the book evenly divided between the different settings, or is one setting given more space? Why would the author do this? •What point of view is used? Does this help or hinder the reader's understanding of the novel? Who do you think the author chose this point of view? Is the narrator reliable? •Imagine if the author chose another character to narrate the story; choose one character who might be a good narrator of the story. What would not get told? What would be told in greater detail? Would anything be changed? Would that character be a reliable narrator? Spend a few minutes rewriting a section of the text from another point of view. Discuss the implications and results.

•How are the characters developed? How do you learn about them--through direct description, the narration of events, or another character's comments? Or is it a combination of methods? Is this effective? Why?

•Does the fictional world mirror the actual world, or is it total fantasy? Could it happen? Why?

•Are there too many coincidences? Are there recognizable links between causes and effects, or is there just a series of unrelated incidents?

•Does the ending give you a sense of closure? What is the significance of the ending? •Is the title appropriate? Why or why not?

•How do all these parts fit together? What literary devices does the author use to unite the parts into a whole?  What are the symbols and allusions, for example, that contribute to the total effect of the work?

Psychoanalytic Criticism

Since this type of criticism is based on Freudian principles, it is best explained by briefly discussing--and simplifying--some terminology used.

•Oedipus complex: an attachment (usually in early childhood) of a boy to his mother. This is usually accompanied by hostility and aggression toward the father, for the father is seen as a rival. The Oedipus complex is to a boy's relationship toward his mother and father as the Electra complex is to a girl and her relationship toward her father and mother.

•Aggresive phase: urges rebellion against those in authority. For the young, this authority may be the father; for the mature, it may be a boss, the police, a government official, etc. Because such aggressiveness must be controlled, it often causes a conflict between a person's desires and duty and can result in severe guilt. Therein often lies the main conflict in a novel.

•Reaction formation: an undesirable attitude is suppressed and replaced by an extreme form of its opposite. Hate is replaced by love; cruelty, by gentleness; stubbornness, by compliance. •Denial: the refusal to admit an unpleasant reality.

•Projection: attributing a desire or feeling to another person.

•Psychic zones:

    id: insistent, lustful, selfish, amoral, pleasure-seeking ego: rational; helps regulate    

     the id, particularly in the individual's relation to his/her society and with its members

    superego:the conscience, values gleaned from parents and society

    ego: the resolution between the the id and the superego, a balancing force

--This approach, therefore, concentrates on basic human drives and the confusion they can produce. Psychoanalytic critics often see all imagery as having sexual implications, but this can narrow our interpretation of a text.

--What truth(s) do each of the main characters have to endure? Do they indeed endure the truth? Or do they ignore it? Are their reactions true to their characters? If you were the characters would you react in the same way? Why?  Investigate Jung’s dream state, shadow imagery, and the ambiguous.

Structuralist

•Emphasis: How works can be understood, the conventions that enable readers to make sense of them.  Examine how the work is built, constructed.

•There are "rules" that govern interpretation of texts.  Look at exposition, flashbacks, foreshadowing, syntax, diction.  Ask yourself, “How is the work put together to develop meaning?

•To be a skilled reader means that one knows the conventions of meaning which allow a person to make sense of it

Feminist Criticism

•Women readers bring different perceptions/expectations to literary experience •Challenge to the "canon"--the whole body of texts that make up the tradition

•Concerned with literary representations of the female...exclusion of the female voice from literature, criticism, theory

•Stereotypes of women

•Images of women in literature...exclusion of women from literary history in patriarchal societies...connection between social and literary mistreatment of women...

• Females obscured by "patriarchal” values...Search for the "female imagination," the "female plot"

•Challenging of the most basic assumptions